The project will further develop the use of graphene for the realization of the unit of resistance. By investigating how contact resistance and component geometry affect the quantum Hall effect, the project will generate knowledge needed for future guidelines, standards and practical use of graphene in quantum metrology.
The quantum Hall effect is used to realize the resistance unit, the ohm. Traditionally, this has been done using materials such as gallium arsenide, but graphene makes it possible to use quantum Hall standards at more practical temperatures, lower magnetic fields and higher currents. In the long term, this could make quantum-based resistance standards simpler, more compact and more accessible, including outside national metrology institutes.
RISE has worked for several years to develop the use of graphene in quantum metrology and is today a world leader in the field. But international guidelines that fully describe how graphene-based components should be designed and used are still lacking. This includes, for example, how high the contact resistance can be before accuracy is affected, and how the dimensions of the components affect the current that can be used.
The project will characterize and standardize important parameters for graphene-based quantum Hall standards. The focus is on two factors that affect how well resistance can be realized: the contact resistance between the metal contact and graphene, and the geometry and length of the components. The project will investigate how these parameters affect the quantum Hall effect and the robustness of the components. The results will be used to develop guidelines and standards for how graphene-based quantum Hall components should be designed and used.
Quantum computing and quantum simulation are opening new ways to approach complex computational problems in science, industry and society.
The technologies are still developing but organisations can already begin to explore where quantum methods may create value, how they connect to existing high-performance computing and AI workflows, and what capabilities will be needed as the technology matures.
We help companies, public sector organisations and research partners understand, test and apply quantum computing and simulation. We combine expertise in quantum algorithms, high-performance computing, AI, cybersecurity, domain modelling and European research infrastructure to support the step from curiosity to practical experimentation.
Through European initiatives such as EuroHPC Joint Undertaking, Swedish and European users are gaining access to different quantum computing platforms and hybrid classical–quantum environments. RISE contributes by supporting knowledge building, training, use-case development and collaboration between research, industry and the public sector.
RISE works with quantum computing and simulation from both a technical and application-oriented perspective:
Quantum computing is not a replacement for classical computing. It is an emerging computational paradigm that will be most useful when connected to the right problems, workflows and infrastructure. We help organisations identify where quantum methods may be relevant, where classical or quantum inspired approaches are more appropriate, and how to build competence without large upfront investment in hardware.
We can support you with:
Quantum computing and simulation may become important in several areas where today’s computational methods face scaling limits, such as:
RISE develops the photonic technologies, devices and test environments needed to move quantum communication from laboratory experiments towards practical networks.
Quantum communication is a key building block for future distributed quantum networks, where photons carry information between quantum devices, sensors and secure network nodes. It also addresses an urgent security challenge: future quantum computers may weaken today’s cryptographic methods, while critical infrastructure needs long-term protection already now.
One of the first practical applications of these networks is quantum key distribution (QKD), where encryption keys are exchanged using quantum states of light. Since any attempt to intercept the signal changes the quantum state, eavesdropping can be detected. QKD can therefore add a physical layer of security to communication networks and complement post-quantum cryptography and existing cybersecurity methods.
RISE work includes fibre-optic quantum communication, quantum photonics and components that can be integrated into existing infrastructure. RISE has developed a low-loss all-fibre phase modulator used in a prototype for all-optical fibre memory, where individual photons test storage time and preservation of encoded quantum states.
RISE will also deploy further infrastructure for quantum-secure communication within NordicQCI – Nordic Quantum Communication Infrastructure, a project coordinated by RISE that will connect Sweden, Finland and Estonia through cross-border quantum links. This work is closely linked to RISE’s broader activities in quantum-safe communication, including the migration towards quantum-secure IT systems for sensitive data such as health data.
Photo:
David Lagerlöf
Graphene and quantum mechanical phenomena are enabling even more precise electrical measurements for industry and society. In a cleanroom in Gothenburg, researchers from RISE manufacture world-leading chips that drive this development and are used by countries such as the United States, South Korea, Canada and France.
In the MyFab Chalmers cleanroom, the air is extremely clean and free from particles such as dust, pollen and other contaminants. This is a prerequisite for the sensitive processes carried out here. The microchips are so small that a single dust particle can be larger than the components on the chip. Before entering the facility, a careful multi-step procedure is required to put on full protective clothing.
“It takes some getting used to if you’re not familiar with it, but for those of us who work here and go in and out several times a day, it’s quite straightforward,” says Hans He, researcher at RISE.
He is in the cleanroom together with fellow researcher Naveen Shetty to manufacture so-called quantum Hall elements and quantum Hall arrays in graphene. The chips are produced using lithography, a method in which an electron beam is used to draw extremely small structures onto the material – in this case graphene of the highest quality.
“Right now we are inspecting the graphene samples before continuing with the rest of the production process. They must be completely defect-free for everything to work. From graphene sample to finished chip takes about a week here in the cleanroom,” says Hans He.
With the quantum Hall effect, we obtain resistance values that are extremely stable and well defined, which makes them perfectly suited for the realization of the unit of resistance.
Resistance and voltage are the cornerstones of electrical measurements. To ensure reliable measurement results, calibrated measurement instruments are required, and the quantum Hall chips serve as the reference point at the top of the calibration chain for resistance. Once the chips are completed, they are transported to the National Laboratory for Electrical Quantities at RISE in Borås. There, precision measurements are carried out for several weeks before they are ready to be used.
'“We have worked for several years on the realization of the resistance unit using the quantum mechanical phenomenon of the quantum Hall effect and graphene, and have, among other things, published our successes in Nature Communications,” says Hans He.
The classical Hall effect occurs when an electric current passes through a material in a magnetic field. A voltage is then generated transversely across the material. The stronger the magnetic field, the larger the voltage becomes. In ordinary materials, this relationship is linear. But in extremely thin materials – two-dimensional systems – at very strong magnetic fields and low temperatures, something unexpected happens. For certain magnetic field values, the transverse resistance takes on exactly defined values that depend only on fundamental constants of nature. This quantum mechanical phenomenon is called the quantum Hall effect.
“With the quantum Hall effect, we obtain resistance values that are extremely stable and well defined, which makes them perfectly suited for the realization of the unit of resistance,” says Hans He.
The quantum Hall effect has been used for a long time. What is new is the use of graphene, which makes it possible to create quantum Hall elements that can operate at higher temperatures, higher currents, and lower magnetic fields, together with the ability to connect many quantum Hall elements into so-called arrays.
“With a single quantum Hall element in graphene we obtain an exact resistance level close to 12.9 kΩ. But resistance values used in industry can be several orders of magnitude lower or higher. To reach other resistance levels, several steps of secondary calibrations are required, and each step increases the measurement uncertainty. To get around this, we have developed methods to connect many elements into arrays, making it possible to choose an arbitrary resistance level for the realization,” says Hans He.
When the SI system was redefined in 2019, the definition of the kilogram was linked to the Planck constant instead of a physical metal cylinder – the International Prototype of the Kilogram. One way to realize the kilogram is to use a so-called Kibble balance, a type of scale that uses electromagnetic force to balance an unknown mass. RISE is working together with NPL in the United Kingdom to develop a Swedish Kibble balance.
“The Kibble balance requires extremely accurate current measurements, and by replacing a traditional resistor with a quantum Hall chip in graphene, the uncertainty in mass measurements can be improved,” says Hans He.
Hans He describes three steps for the development. The first step is individual quantum Hall elements made from graphene, which are now moving toward international standardization and are already used today in comparison measurements between national metrology institutes. The second step is quantum Hall arrays.
“So far we are almost alone in the world in achieving the stability and quality required for the arrays, so it will take some time before this can become an internationally standardized method,” says Hans He.
One limitation of quantum Hall arrays is that the resistance level is determined during manufacturing (for example fixed to 100 Ω). The third step is therefore programmable arrays, where the user can set the desired resistance level in real time using a single chip.
“This is a long-term goal and requires extensive research, but it has the potential to become the ultimate resistance standard. Voltage standards based on another quantum phenomenon, the Josephson effect, have already completed this journey and are today programmable,” says Hans He.
The technology is already used internationally. RISE collaborates with and supplies the world-leading chips to national metrology institutes in countries such as the United States, France, Canada and South Korea, and sells chips commercially to the Canadian measurement instrument manufacturer Measurements International Ltd.
“The interest in the technology is growing. We receive many enquiries, we are invited to an increasing number of research collaborations, and the technology we have developed is actively used both in research and in commercial activities,” says Hans He.
The quantum Hall effect is a quantum mechanical phenomenon that occurs in two-dimensional materials under strong magnetic fields. Electrons can only move in certain discrete paths, which causes the resistance to take on discrete, extremely stable levels (plateaus). These resistance values depend only on fundamental constants of nature, making them ideal as an absolute reference for metrology at the highest level.
Graphene consists of a single atomic layer of carbon. Its crystal structure gives graphene unique electrical properties that make it ideal for quantum Hall components. The quantum Hall effect in graphene occurs at higher temperatures, lower magnetic fields, and can withstand higher currents compared with the semiconductor materials used previously. This improves performance and makes practical operation easier.
For metrological applications, epitaxially grown graphene on silicon carbide is used, resulting in a monolayer of monocrystalline graphene of the high quality required for precision measurements.
The Swedish healthcare sector is facing a technological shift that could change the rules of the game for information security. Quantum computers, which in the future may be able to crack today’s encryption, pose a long-term threat to the protection of sensitive data, such as health data.
At the same time, quantum technology opens the door to groundbreaking medical research and drug development. It is not a question of if the technology will arrive, but when. It is also a complex issue of how to manage the balance between innovation and security. What is clear, however, is that leaders within Sweden’s healthcare sector need to act now, before the threat becomes a reality.
A new report from RISE in collaboration with the Swedish E-health Agency, funded by Vinnova, states that time is short. The strategy hackers are already using is called "harvest now, decrypt later," which involves collecting encrypted data today to decrypt it once quantum computers become powerful enough. The decrypted information can then be used for purposes such as blackmail. For health data, which retains its value throughout an individual’s lifetime, this could be an existential threat.
"The greatest threat is not technical uncertainty but passivity, and decision-makers need to become aware of this. There are no finalized standards yet, but there are basic standards for post-quantum cryptography, PQC, which means the work can begin, and it needs to be done now. If we wait to start until everything is in place, we risk falling several years behind," says Michael Popoff, senior researcher in quantum technologies at RISE.
The report points out that crucial decisions need to be made now, ahead of new procurements and within management teams. The framework agreements signed during 2026 will determine whether systems are equipped with PQC by 2030, when the EU requires them to be. PQC consists of classical, non-quantum-based algorithms designed to withstand attacks from quantum computers. In other words, requirements for PQC readiness must be introduced immediately.
"We are seeing a development where security requirements are taking an increasingly prominent place in public procurement. This gives public actors a strategic opportunity to steer the market," says Åse Lundh Gravenius, senior researcher and legal expert.
She emphasizes that it may be necessary to have the ability to exclude suppliers for security reasons. But the issue is not just technical; it is also organizational and ethical. Quantum resilience must be anchored at the management level and integrated into risk management.
"The solutions are there, the technology is there, so let’s talk about it. This is not an IT issue, but a management issue. Health data are stories of people's lives, collected under trust. Protecting them is not just a legal obligation but also a social responsibility," says Michael Popoff.
The report suggests that Sweden quickly develops a technical reference document for quantum resilience within the healthcare sector before international standards are in place. Economic incentives, such as time-limited support for inventories and migration plans, can give municipalities and regions the capacity to act. Knowledge management and communication are crucial to awakening the will to act.
"We must see the synergies. There are clear overlaps between the measures required for quantum resilience and the processes now following from NIS2 and EHDS. It’s not about new resources, but about smart coordination and a high pace," says Åse Lundh Gravenius.
The message is clear: the threat is in the future, but the time to act is now. The path toward quantum resilience today is about using existing steering instruments strategically, such as procurement, executive management, and coordination with other regulations.
In a newly started Vinnova project led by RISE, researchers will now investigate how to implement the transition to quantum-secure solutions for health data. The project works with case studies and in working groups representing different actors in the ecosystem. The idea is to prepare actors handling health data, both private and public, for the migration to quantum-secure IT systems that will be required. The project concludes at the end of 2028, and the goal is then to have a secured transition to quantum-secure solutions for the healthcare sector by 2030.
Read the full report (pdf, in Swedish) Framtidens hot, dagens beslut - policy för kvantsäkra hälsodata
Sweden is launching an exciting new quantum initiative in which quantum communication infrastructure connecting Sweden with Finland and Estonia will be built.
RISE is the coordinator of the Vinnova‑funded project NordicQCI – Nordic Quantum Communication Infrastructure. The project is a central part of the European EuroQCI initiative and aims to strengthen the EU’s – including its overseas territories’ – ability to protect critical societal communications in a future where quantum technology is rapidly reshaping the security landscape.
NordicQCI will build quantum communication infrastructure that links Sweden with Finland and Estonia. The cross‑border quantum links will be implemented via the existing underwater cables connecting the countries. The project will also enable connection to EuroQCI’s space segment through an optical ground station in Stockholm, providing support for quantum‑secure satellite communications.
The Swedish partners in the project, in addition to RISE, are Ericsson, Stockholm University, KTH, and Linköping University. NordicQCI is funded through the CEF Digital EuroQCI programme, with co‑funding from Vinnova and the Advanced Digitalisation fund.
The project runs until June 2029 and represents an important step towards a robust, resilient, and quantum‑secure communication network throughout the Nordic region and Europe.
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Adobe Stock
Quantum technology is often highlighted as the next big leap for science, industry, and society. But how close are we? And will it be a revolution or rather a slower evolution? We asked two of RISE experts in quantum technology to share their perspectives.
What is today described as an upcoming technological revolution began more than a hundred years ago. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg laid the foundations for quantum mechanics, a breakthrough that made it possible to calculate the properties of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, and solids. Since the 1970s in particular, research has accelerated and led to the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2012, 2022, and most recently in 2025.
2025 was also designated the Year of Quantum Physics by the UN. Research has taken another leap forward and now everyone is talking about quantum: about new ways of communicating, about groundbreaking computing power and about sensor technology with precision beyond today's limitations. At the same time, quantum phenomena are already part of our everyday lives. GPS, for example, is based on extremely precise atomic clocks, and LED screens use quantum principles to generate light. Now we are facing the next step.
“The development of quantum technology can be compared to an industrial revolution, with the potential to affect many sectors at the same time – with new opportunities in secure communication, computing power and sensors,” says Linda Johansson, head of quantum technologies at RISE.
Quantum computers open the door to solving complex problems much faster, for example, to develop new materials or accelerate the development of medicines.
Professor Göran Wendin, one of RISE experts in quantum technology, also sees great progress ahead:
"We can expect exciting developments over the next ten years. Technologies for super-sensitive quantum sensors will bring significant improvements in measurement technology and will have a major impact on, for example, inertial navigation, military systems, super-high-resolution microscopy, medical diagnostics, and much more."
Another area is quantum communication, where flying photons can enable communication that cannot be intercepted without being noticed or destroyed. However, its use is still limited and largely experimental, according to Göran Wendin.
When it comes to quantum computers, developments have progressed rapidly over the past ten years. The big challenge now is to create large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computers that can handle problems that today's supercomputers cannot. The major suppliers are drawing up timelines with revolutionary breakthroughs by 2030 and expectations of truly powerful quantum computers around 2035. But will the world change radically in just five to ten years? Neither Göran nor Linda believe so, but it will be an exciting time.
“We will see major advances in the industry that will influence technological development,” says Göran Wendin, adding that RISE, as Sweden's research institute, has a role to play in helping companies, the public sector, and organisations navigate quantum development.
The development of quantum technology can be compared to an industrial revolution
RISE is actively involved in several EU projects and in the Quantum Sweden Innovation Platform (QSIP), an initiative to stimulate, promote, and drive innovation in quantum technology. The goal is to support the growth and development of a Swedish industry that is globally competitive and attractive, based on and through quantum technology.
A highly topical issue right now is for example quantum encryption; being able to protect today's data that future quantum computers could crack. The EU has set a target that financial systems and health data, for example, should be protected by 2030.
There is a lot happening on the front line, but to what extent will this development be noticeable in society?
“My answer is: probably not much, or not at all. It will be a slow development over the next 20 years, and we will easily get used to it and take it for granted. It's a bit like new models of mobile phones coming out at regular intervals. I just think it will become clear when we look back on today's society in the future,” says Göran Wendin.
He believes that we should talk about a quantum evolution rather than a quantum revolution.
"I don't see quantum computers suddenly being able to solve super-important problems for humanity or anything fantastic happening. I don't believe that. It's about long-term investments and patience.
Linda Johansson is not as cautious in her visions:
"The development of quantum technology can be compared to an industrial revolution, with the potential to affect many sectors simultaneously. With quantum computers, we can solve complex problems much faster, for example, to develop new materials and produce new medicines more quickly. This is technology that will change both industry and society, she believes, continuing:
“It sounds big, and it is. But considering what quantum physics has already given us, there is good reason to be optimistic as the next wave arrives.”
Generated/enhanced by AI
Quantum technology is on the verge of a breakthrough that is expected to transform society – from drug development and cyber security to energy efficiency and new materials. But the path from laboratory research to industrial application is fraught with challenges. Quantum computers may soon be able to crack today's encryption, requiring an immediate transition to quantum-secure solutions even though the threat has not yet materialised. The development of quantum technology places extremely high demands on measurement precision and stable environments, something that few companies have the resources to handle on their own. At the same time, there are still no established standards in this area, and small and medium-sized enterprises need support to make the transition from research to scalable production.
RISE builds the bridge between the potential of quantum research and practical application. Through Sweden's national laboratories, both quantum metrology for more accurate measurements and metrology that supports the development of quantum technology are being developed – from quantum standards to measurement methods at extremely low temperatures. RISE offers infrastructure, test beds and expertise in quantum communication, quantum sensors and quantum computers, and conducts research into quantum-secure encryption to protect critical systems in society. As an independent research institute, RISE coordinates standardisation work and helps companies understand quantum technology, develop prototypes and accelerate innovation – especially for small and medium-sized enterprises that need access to specialist expertise and advanced equipment.
